There could be advantages to inverting the question from, Does Result A replicate Result B (given their proximity and uncertainty)?, While a number of different standards for replicability/non-replicability may be justifiable, depending on the attributes of interest, a standard of repeated statistical significance has many limitations because the level of statistical significance is an arbitrary threshold (. Should an individual's genetic code be kept on file by the government, and if so, to whom should it be available? Furthermore since different laboratories frequently make nearly simultaneous, independent discoveries of the same scientific result or phenomenon, the question arises as to the ethical justification for giving all of the credit to the one who just happens to be first to submit the results for publication. However, a successful replication does not guarantee that the original scientific results of a study were correct, nor does a single failed replication conclusively refute the original claims. This issue emerged from cases where data in a paper have been challenged as being wrong and perhaps fraudulently represented. (2018, fn. In Defense of the Land Ethic: Essays in Environmental Philosophy. Generalization arguments are the most prominent type of argument for nonanthropocentrism. Go slowly. Some people might argue that, or behave as if, other objects or people have little or no objective intrinsic value. We also drew on the previous work of committee members and other experts in the field of replicability of research. As the British scientist Jacob Bronowski observed more than half a century ago, the enterprise of science requires the adoption of certain values that are adhered to by its practitioners with exceptional rigor. To do so, each individual must decide what they value most in life. Copyright 2023 National Academy of Sciences. For example, in animal research, it has long been known that the environmental conditions in which the animals live can have an impact on the outcome of experiments. This content is currently under construction. This contribution addresses these core questions regarding intrinsic value and conservation: Intrinsic value is the value that an entity has in itself, for what it is, or as an end (Figure 1). warrant continued attention because they reduce the efficiency with which science progresses and time spent resolving non-replicablity issues that are caused by these sources do not add to scientific understanding. We will discuss the topic of human subjects in some detail, both in the next chapter and in connection with the case study about the Tuskegee syphilis experiment in Chapter 4. Some instruments require periodic calibration throughout the course of an experiment , so it's good to make a note in your lab notebook to see whether the calibrations appears to have affected the data. While current policies and institutions aimed at preventing and dealing with research misconduct are certainly necessary, detrimental research practices likely arise from some of the same causes and may cost the research enterprise more than misconduct does in terms of resources wasted on the fabricated or falsified work, resources wasted on following up this work, harm to public health due to treatments based on acceptance of incorrect clinical results, reputational harm to collaborators and institutions, and others. 54% of replications produced a statistically significant effect in the same direction as the original study, 75% yielded effect sizes smaller than the original ones, and 25% yielded larger effect sizes than the original ones. Some research had found that the compound resveratrol (found in red wine) could dramatically extend the life of worms in the lab, but other scientists had difficulty replicating the results. Philosophers might emphasize the methodological aspects of science focusing on experimentation, observation and theorizing as elements of the means by which reliable information about the natural world is gleaned through the practice of science. What is contested (Norton 1995, Sarkar 2005, United Nations 1992b) is whether ecosystems and species have non-instrumental value, value as an end, or value in themselves as well (i.e., intrinsic value). Norton, B. There are criticisms of funnel plots, however; some argue that the shape of a funnel plot is largely determined by the choice of method (Tang and Liu, 2000). Found a significant effect in the same direction as the original study for 62% (13 of 21) studies, and the effect size of the replications was on average about 50% of the original effect size. On the other hand, a family who values sports and entertainment may spend their evenings and holidays eating dinner on the couch. An inheritance is a unique opportunity for financial stability. The idea that nature and biotic diversity have intrinsic value has been defended by several influential environmental ethicists (Rolston 1986, Callicott 1989), and it has featured prominently in some significant international declarations regarding the environment (United Nations 1992a, Earth Charter International 2000). The study found that many of the p-values reported in papers were inconsistent with a recalculation of the p-value and that in one out of eight papers, this inconsistency was large enough to affect the statistical conclusion (Nuijten et al., 2016). Subjective intrinsic value is created by valuers through their evaluative attitudes or judgments it does not exist prior to or independent from these. ), Engineering. Example sentences inherent value These examples have been automatically selected and may contain sensitive content that does not reflect the opinions or policies of Collins, or its parent company HarperCollins. This is the conception of intrinsic value that Soul appeals to in his normative postulate: "Species have value in themselves, a value neither conferred nor revocable, but springing from a species' long evolutionary heritage and potential" (Soule 1985). (Fraser et al., 2018). Bioscience 35, 727-734 (1985). These are all examples of instrumental value. "(14) Weve included fundamental values, personal values in relationships, values in work, and values for life as a whole. Determining consistency between two different results or inferences can be approached in a number of ways (Simonsohn, 2015; Verhagen and Wagenmakers, 2014). Goals are justified by appeal to values. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2008. On the contrary, when students are taught that scientists are mere mortals who are subject to the same social pressures and temptations, in their work as well as in their private lives, that influence all human endeavor, they are more likely to identify with scientists. Some environmental ethicists (Sterba 2001, Johnson 1991) have argued that species and ecosystems also have a good of their own and that their good needs to be taken into account i.e., that they have inherent worth. Inherent sources of non-replicability arise in every field of science, but they can vary widely depending on the specific system undergoing study. dating back to the 1970s found that while the number of retractions has grown, the rate of increase has slowed; approximately 4 of every 10,000 papers are now retracted (Brainard, 2018). If the work is a collaborative effort, involving researchers from different scientific disciplines, is it reasonable to expect all of them to vouch for the entire content of the paper? Of the 18 studies, 2 analyses (11%) were replicated; 6 were partially replicated or showed some discrepancies in results; and 10 could not be replicated. The replication studies such as those shown in Table 5-1 are not necessarily indicative of the actual rate of non-replicability across science for a number of reasons: the studies to be replicated were not randomly chosen, the replications had methodological shortcomings, many replication studies are not reported as such, and the reported replication studies found widely varying rates of non-replication (Gilbert et al., 2016). Fewer than 2 percent of authors in the database account for more than one-quarter of the retracted articles, and the retractions of these frequent offenders are usually based on fraud rather than errors that lead to non-replicability. Similarly, highly publicized concerns about misconduct by Cornell University professor Brian Wansink highlight how consistent failure to adhere to best practices for collecting, analyzing, and reporting dataintentional or notcan blur the line between helpful and unhelpful sources of non-replicability. 1): Previous large-scale replication projects have typically treated the individual study as the primary unit of analysis. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book. One theme of Fostering Integrity in Research is that research misconduct and detrimental research practices are a continuum of behaviors (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2017). An attempt by a second researcher to replicate a previous study is an effort to determine whether applying the same methods to the same scientific question produces similar results. The difficulty with this ecocentrism view is that it is not clear that there is anything that could be considered the species' or ecosystem's good above and beyond (or distinct from) the good of the individual organisms that comprise them. Ready to take your reading offline? as the purkinje shift (i.e., a change in sensitivity of the human eye under different levels of illumination). They aim to show that if humans have inherent worth, then so too do non-humans i.e., there is no adequate justification for taking the good or interests of humans into consideration, but not the good or interests of non-humans (Singer 1977, Taylor 1986, Sandler 2007) (Figure 3). On a personal level, these values help you determine the broader vision of your career and your daily performance in the workplace. HARKing. This obviously spurious relationship illustrates the dangers of analyzing data with hypotheses and subgroups that were not prespecified. Morals are a system of beliefs that is taught for deciding good or bad as opposed to coming from within and are emotionally related for deciding right or wrong. Interrelations and interactions among multiple components cannot always be predicted and neither can the resulting effects on the experimental outcomes, so an initial estimate of uncertainty may be an educated guess. In research at universities, the employment of graduate students to do research raises issues about whether the assigned research is the optimal work in terms of the education and the training of the student. This all comes down to what people want most out of life. Three Challenges to Ethics: Environmentalism, Feminism, and Multiculturalism. Scientists have found that unconscious beliefs impact our actions. This page has been archived and is no longer updated. However, personal development and shifting your priorities in life can help you change your values to be more aligned with the best version of yourself. Then you will use your Punnett square skills to solve genetics problems related to each type of inheritance. Schimmack (2012) has demonstrated that the proportion of statistically significant results across a set of psychology studies often far exceeds the estimated statistical power of those studies; this pattern of results that is too good to be true suggests that results were either not obtained following the rules of statistical inference (i.e., conducting a single statistical test that was chosen a priori) or did not report all studies attempted (i.e., there is a file drawer of statistically nonsignificant studies that do not get published; or possibly the results were p-hacked or cherry picked (see Chapter 2). Little information is available about the prevalence of such inappropriate statistical practices as p-hacking, cherry picking, and hypothesizing after results are known (HARKing), discussed below. Values in relation to science can be considered from epistemic, cognitive, cultural, social, political, moral and ethical perspectives. To figure out your true north, try the CORE value exercise: Once you complete the exercise, grab a highlighter and circle the top 5 core values that feel most aligned with who you are. The contrasting type of value is instrumental value. In these examples, a set of studies was selected and a single replication attempt was made to confirm results of each previous study, or one-to-one comparisons were made. Richard Peto, one of the researchers, refused to do so because of the risk of finding invalid but seemingly significant associations. In the case of Anil Potti at Duke University, a researcher using genomic analysis on cancer patients was later found to have falsified data. Acknowledging the different approaches to assessing replicability across scientific disciplines, however, we emphasize eight core characteristics and principles: 2Cova et al. It is contrasted to a means, which is something that helps you achieve that goal. 4 There is risk of missing a new discovery by rejecting data outliers without further investigation. Replication is one of the key ways scientists build confidence in the scientific merit of results. Values become especially evident when you meet someone raised entirely different from you. Moreover, replication may be a matter of degree, rather than a binary result of success or failure.1 We explain in Chapter 7 how research synthesis, especially meta-analysis, can be used to evaluate the evidence on a given question. He claims that issues related to the exploitation of science "are not ethical choices that confront the scientist himself." After more than one year of painstaking work to align protocols among the labs, the variability decreased. In fact, we know that people with a particular interest in or concern about a topic, such as replicability and reproducibility, are more likely to respond to surveys on the topic (Brehm, 1993). In 2010, economists Carmen Reinhart and Kenneth Rogoff published an article that showed if a countrys debt exceeds 90 percent of the countrys gross domestic product, economic growth slows and declines slightly (0.1%). This is typically thought to be the case with respect to the value of persons, for example. At the same time, replication studies often provide more and better-quality evidence than most original studies alone, and they highlight such methodological features as high precision or statistical power, preregistration, and multi-site collaboration (Nosek, 2016). II. That is, it is not easy to explain why natural-historical properties of species and systems are objectively value adding (Sandler 2007). In that case, you might avoid traditional work and instead work as an entrepreneureven if this means working longer hours and having more financial uncertainty. On one of these views, intrinsic value is created by human valuing (Callicott 1986, Elliot 1992). The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) issued a target storage capacity in the mid-1990s. They randomly assigned participants to a version closer to the original or to Ebersole et al.s version. In some fields, like high energy nuclear physics, the list of authors can exceed ten, or even twenty. Instead, they illuminate how different values play out in peoples daily decisions. At the deepest level, knowing your core values prevents you from betraying yourself in pursuit of temporary or futile distractions. None of these studies was explicitly called an attempt at replication. The susceptibility of any line of scientific inquiry to sources of non-replicability depends on many factors, including factors inherent to the system under study, such as the, Studies that pursue lines of inquiry that are able to better estimate and analyze the uncertainties associated with the variables in the system and control the methods that will be used to conduct the experiment are more replicable. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005. These techniques cannot determine which of the individual studies are affected by bias (i.e., which results are false positives) or identify the particular type of bias, but they arguably allow one to identify bodies of literature that are likely to be more or less accurate representations of the evidence. Attempt by Amgen team to reproduce the results of 53 landmark studies. The failure to report some aspect of the studyor to do so in sufficient detailmay make it difficult for another researcher to replicate the result. The heightened public concern about animals as research subjects resulting from the animal rights movement is an issue familiar to most science teachers, particularly biology teachers. If something has objective intrinsic value, it has properties or features in virtue of which it is valuable, independent of anyone's attitudes or judgments. One source of disputes concerning credit for research ideas and ownership of intellectual property is the peer review process. A current ethical issue related to credit, and to authorship of research reports, is the extent to which a scientist whose name appears as an author should be held responsible for all the data and results reported in a published paper. This example demonstrates the variety of legitimate sources of non-replicability and the time and effort required to perform replication studieseven when the researchers are making their best efforts. Many people value species and ecosystems intrinsically (e.g., for their complexity, diversity, spiritual significance, wildness, beauty, or wondrousness). However, many species are quite low on instrumental value (Maclaurin & Sterelny 2008), and in some cases instrumental value (particularly economic and resource values) will favor development and use rather than conservation and preservation. All living organisms have a good of their own. Another common example relates to money. 2016).The authors contend that an "unhelpful dichotomy" exists among conservationists over whether nature should be protected for humans' sake (instrumental values) or for . But, we believe that a more important reason is our obligation as teachers to convey to our students the true nature of the human enterprise that we call science. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989. FINDING 5-5: Replication studies in the natural and clinical sciences (general biology, genetics, oncology, chemistry) and social sciences (including economics and psychology) report frequencies of replication ranging from fewer than one out of five studies to more than three out of four studies. Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email. In response, Reinhart and Rogoff acknowledged the errors, calling it sobering that such an error slipped into one of our papers despite our best efforts to be consistently careful. Reinhart and Rogoff said that while the error led to a notable change in the calculation of growth in one category, they did not believe it affects in any significant way the central message of the paper.11. Other measures of replicability include assessments that can provide indicators of bias, errors, and outliers, including, for example, computational data checks of reported numbers and comparison of reported values against a database of previously reported values. We certainly make no claims to present, in this brief text, a comprehensive treatment of the vast terrain occupied by the intersection between science and ethic/values issues. In today's world, where the vast majority of scientific research is funded by corporate or other private interests which often place rigid restrictions on the publication of scientific results and the exchange of scientific information, and where academic scientists find themselves in a highly competitive environment, these norms can no longer be viewed as generally applicable to the practice of science. Assessing Unpublished Literature. They help you determine which people, things, goals, and decisions align with your true self. Singer, P. Animal Liberation. However, a happy relationship must be founded on similar values for two people to thrive together. Integrated . These results were widely publicized and used to support austerity measures around the world (Herndon et al., 2013). (2018). Drastic personal transformation or unsettling changes in ones life can warrant reevaluating your established values. In physics, measurements of the electronic band gap of semiconducting and conducting materials using scanning tunneling microscopy is a highly controlled, simple system (Quadrant A). One reason for doing this is the practical result discovered by the teachers who attended our Summer Institutes: it heightens the interest of their students because of the "humanizing" effect of incorporating ethics into science teaching. It is indeed the product of research; it does employ characteristic methods; it is an organized body of knowledge; it is a means of solving problems."(9). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Inherent values are a relevant consideration in tenure review and discretionary consenting decisions.. Steven Goodman, the codirector of the Meta-Research Innovation Center at Stanford University (METRICS), suggested that the focus ought not be on the rate of non-replication of individual studies, but rather on cumulative evidence provided by all studies and convergence to the truth. Defining your core values is essential for guiding you through uncertain times. Albany, NY: State University Press of New York Press, 1989. The Earth Charter. Sometimes the broad vision for your life can be clouded by temptations or distractions. Taylor, P. Respect for Nature: A Theory of Environmental Ethics. Published data were completely in line with the results of the validation studies in 20%-25% of cases. 3) discuss the challenge of defining sufficiently similar as well as the interpretation of the results: In practice, it can be hard to determine whether the sufficiently similar criterion has actually been fulfilled by the replication attempt, whether in its methods or in its results (Nakagawa and Parker 2015). It is by no means an exhaustive list of issues of the types he discussed. The authors of this study reported that environmental standardization may compromise replicability by systematically increasing the incidence of results that are idiosyncratic to study-specific environmental conditions (Richter et al., 2009). The fact that the practice of science is a human social activity is a central theme of a booklet entitled "On Being a Scientist," initially published in 1989. The effect size was much larger when the original study was replicated more faithfully (the first set of replications inadvertently introduced a change in the procedure). The claim that the peer review process and openness of communication significantly reduce the influences of bias in science assumes a set of historic norms for the behavior of scientists that are less descriptive of scientific behavior today than when they were codified by the eminent sociologist R. K. Merton in 1942. Some but not all researcher misconduct has been uncovered through reproducibility and replication attempts, which are the self-correcting mechanisms of science. Instrumental value is the value that something has as a means to a desired or valued end. In psychology, an estimated 75 percent of reviews included unpublished research (Rothstein, 2006). Incomplete dominance. Errors may also be made by researchers despite their best intentions (see Box 5-2). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986. These values also provide the basis for enhancing human capabilities and human welfare. More generally, a number of flaws in design and reporting can reduce the reliability of a studys results. Some have suggested that these incentives can lead researchers to ignore standards of scientific conduct, rush to publish, and overemphasize positive results (Edwards and Roy, 2017). Is the magnitude of effect of interest? An effort to replicate 18 studies published in the. To understand someones core values, you can also look at how they make big life decisions. In some cases, non-replicability arises from the inherent characteristics of the systems under study. It is unknown to what extent inappropriate HARKing occurs in various disciplines, but some have attempted to quantify the consequences of HARKing. 70, 92). External regulation There were kids in my extracurricular music class who clearly didn't want to be there. Peer reviewers at the relevant scientific journal reject the report because it fails the 95% test. 1. As he states, "This problem of standards of proof is ethical, and not merely theoretical or methodological in nature, because it bridges the gap between scientific understanding and action, between thinking and doing" Personal factors, such as the need to publish in order to advance his or her career goals may tempt a scientist to exaggerate the certainty of scientific results. In these situations, preservation, conservation, and assisted recovery goals are justified only if the organisms, species, or systems involved possess non-instrumental (i.e., intrinsic) value. In a page number and Press Enter to go directly to that page the. Not prespecified has been uncovered through reproducibility and replication attempts, which is something that you. Capabilities and human welfare fails the 95 % test persons, for example temptations. 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